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====== Astral sciences ======



The following aspects of ancient Mesopotamian astronomy are treated in the articles on astral sciences:

**- [[Introduction to Babylonian Astronomy]]**\\

**- [[Omens]]**
  * [[omens#enuma_anu_enlil|Enuma Anu Enlil]]
  * [[omens#practical_use_in_letters_to_the_king|Practical use in letters to the king]]
  * [[omens#bibliography|Bibliography]]

**- Theoretical texts, schematic**\\

**- [[Observational Texts]]**
  * [[observational_texts#embedded_in_omens|Embedded in omens]]
  * [[observational_texts#observational_texts_from_the_1st_millennium_bc|Observational texts from the 1st millennium]]

**- Procedure texts, mathematical**\\

**- Table texts**\\

**- “Astrology”**\\
From a modern point of view, it can be disputed whether celestial omens should be included among sources of Babylonian astronomy. For the Ancients the modern difference between astronomy and astrology certainly did not exist, as can be seen, e. g., from the inclusion of lunar tables in Tablet XIV of the omen collection Enūma Anu Enlil (see the article on Schematic astronomy).


===== Text types =====

Among the texts on astral science, the following types be can distinguished. The table below lists these types, provides their ancient name if any, indicates an approximate dating and a rough estimation of the number of tablets known to date. These text types are presented in detail in the articles on astral sciences.

^  Text type            ^  Period of      attestation                      ^  Ancient name (if known)                                                                                                                                                                                                       ^  Number (approx.)  ^
|  Omens                | 2<sup>nd</sup> mill. BC -- 2<sup>nd</sup> c. BC  |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |                    |
|  Letters and reports  | 8<sup>th</sup> -- 7<sup>th</sup> c. BC           | //egirtu////, u’iltu//                                                                                                                                                                                                         |  650               |
|  Theoretical texts    | 14<sup>th</sup> -- 2<sup>nd</sup> c. BC          | // //                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |                    |
|  Diaries              | 7<sup>th</sup> -- 1<sup>st</sup> c. BC           | //na////ṣ////āru// //ša ginê// “regular watching”                                                                                                                                                                              |  1500              |
|  Goal-year texts      | 3<sup>rd</sup> -- 1<sup>st</sup> c. BC           | U<sub>4</sub>-1-KAM IGI<sup>meš</sup> DIB-//qa//<sup>meš</sup> //u// AN-KU<sub>10</sub><sup>meš</sup> //šá ana// MU-x-KAM //kunn////ū//\\ „first days, appearances, passings, and eclipses which were established for year x“  |  180               |
|  Almanacs             | 3<sup>rd</sup> c. BC -- 1<sup>st</sup> c. AD     | //meš////ḫ////i// “predictions”(?)                                                                                                                                                                                             |  250               |
|  Eclipse records      | 8<sup>th</sup> c. BC-- 1<sup>st</sup> c. AD      |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |  40                |
|  Procedure texts      | 4<sup>th</sup> -- 1<sup>st</sup> c. BC           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |  100               |
|  Table texts (math.)  | 5<sup>th</sup> -- 1<sup>st</sup> c. BC           | //tersītu//                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |  300               |
|  “Astrology”          | 5<sup>th</sup> -- 1<sup>st</sup> c. BC           | // //                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |  70                |

=====Bibliography =====

**Web Sites**
    * [[http://bibmas.topoi.org|Bibliography of Babylonian Astral Science.]]
    * [[http://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/babylon/babybibl.htm|R. H. van Gent, Bibliography of Mesopotamian Astronomy and Astrology.]]
\\



**Editions of texts**
  * Horowitz, Wayne. 2014. //The Three Stars Each//, //The Astrolabes and Related Texts//. Wien: Institut für Orientalistik.
  * Hunger, Hermann and David Pingree. 1989. //MUL.APIN, An Astronomical Compendium in Cuneiform//. Horn: Berger.
  * Neugebauer, Otto. 1955. //Astronomical Cuneiform Texts//. London: Lund Humphries.
  * Ossendrijver, Mathieu. 2012. //Babylonian Mathematical Astronomy: Procedure Texts//. New York: Springer.
  * Sachs, Abraham J. and Hermann Hunger. 1988, 1989, 1996, 2001, 2006, 2014. //Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts from Babylonia//. Vols. I-III, V-VII. Wien: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. 
\\



**Historiography**
  * De Jong, Teije. 2016. "Babylonian Astronomy 1880-1950: The Players and the Field" in: Alexander Jones, Christine Proust, and John Steele (eds.), A Mathematician's Journeys: Otto Neugebauer and Modern Transformations of Ancient Science. New York: Springer.
\\



**General books**
  * Brown, David. 2000. //Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology//. Groningen: Styx.
  * Hunger, Hermann and David Pingree. 1999. //Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia//. Leiden: Brill.
  * Neugebauer, Otto. 1969. //The Exact Sciences in Antiquity//. 2nd edition, New York: Springer.
  * Neugebauer, Otto. 1975. //A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy//. Berlin, New York: Springer.
  * Rochberg, Francesca. 2004. //The Heavenly Writing//. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  * Steele, John M. 2008. //A Brief Introduction to Astronomy in the Middle East//. London -- San Francisco -- Beirut: Saqi.
\\



**Other Books and Articles**
  * Brack-Bernsen, Lis. 1997. //Zur Entstehung der babylonischen Mondtheorie//. Stuttgart.
  * Britton, John P. 1989. "An early function for eclipse magnitudes in Babylonian astronomy" //Centaurus// 32:1-52.
  * Epping, Joseph, with Johann N. Strassmaier. 1889. //Astronomisches// //aus Babylon//. Freiburg i. B.: Herder.
  * Fadhil, Abdulillah and Markus Hilgert. 2007. „Zur Identifikation des lexikalischen Kompendiums 2R 50 + (K 2035a + K 4337)“ //Revue d’Assyriologie// 101:95-105.
  * Gray, Jennifer M. K. and John M. Steele, “Studies on Babylonian Goal-Year Astronomy I” //Archive for History of Exact Sciences// 62:553-600.
  * Huber, Peter J. and Salvo De Meis. 2004. //Babylonian Eclipse Observations from 750 BC to 1 BC//. Milano: Mimesis.
  * Koch, Johannes. 1989. //Neue Untersuchungen zur Topographie des babylonischen Fixsternhimmels//. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
  * Kugler, Franz X. 1900. //Die babylonische Mondrechnung//. Freiburg i. B.: Herder.
  * Kugler, Franz X. 1907-24. //Sternkunde und Sterndienst in Babel//. Münster: Aschendorff.
  * Pingree, David and Christopher Walker. 1988. “A Babylonian Star-Catalogue: BM 78161”. In: Leichty, E., Ellis, M. deJ., and Gerardi, P. (eds.). //A Scientific Humanist, Studies in Memory of Abraham Sachs//, p. 313-322. Philadelphia: The University Museum.
  * Reiner, Erica. 1995. //Astral Magic in Babylonia//. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.
  * Reiner, Erica and Miguel Civil, MSL XI. 1974.The series ḪAR-ra = //ḫ////ubullu//. Tablets XX-XXIV. Rom: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum.
  * Rochberg, Francesca. 1998. //Babylonian Horoscopes//. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.
  * Smith, Sidney. 1969. “Babylonian Time Reckoning”. //Iraq// 31:74-81.
  * Steele, John M. 2000. //Observations and Predictions of Eclipse Times by Early Astronomers//. Dordrecht.
  * Steele, John M. 2007. "Celestial Measurement in Babylonian Astronomy" //Annals of Science// 64:293-325.
  * Steele, John M. 2011. “Astronomy and Culture in Late Babylonian Uruk” in: Ruggles, Clive (ed.), //“Oxford IX” International Symposium on Archaeoastronomy//, 331-341. Cambridge.
  * Swerdlow, Noel M. 1998. //The Babylonian Theory of the Planets//. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  * Von Weiher, Egbert. 1988. //Spätbabylonische Texte aus Uruk//, Teil III. Berlin: Gebr. Mann.
  * Weidner, Ernst. 1927. „Eine Beschreibung des Sternenhimmels aus Assur“. //Archiv für Orientforschung// 4:73-85.
  * Weidner, Ernst. 1967. //Gestirn-Darstellungen auf babylonischen Tontafeln//. Wien: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.